Human exposure x ray 1890s7/21/2023 ![]() To provide a context for how the accidents occurred and how they contributed to the development of electrically shockproof X-ray systems, the following subjects will be addressed: (1) electrical current and the human body, (2) high-voltage power supplies used in X-ray systems, (3) X-ray tubes, (4) wiring of X-ray systems, (5) safety recommendations and legislation, (6) victims of electrical shock, (7) types of electrical accidents. In this work we present the lethal and serious non-lethal accidents we were able to retrieve from the literature. Though manufacturers developed many modifications to improve electrical safety, it was not until around 1935 that new X-ray systems might be considered electrically safe for the patient and operator ( see Grigg for many historical details). Ensuing fatal and serious non-fatal accidents incited several authors to formulate safety recommendations, which ultimately led to legislation. The potential danger of X-ray machines increased after the development of high-voltage transformers, which allowed for an increase in electrical power. Over time, wiring configurations received considerable attention, but wires and contacts still remained partially unprotected. Moreover, corona discharges around exposed high tension were responsible for the formation of noxious nitrogen oxides and ozone. Apart from the danger of personal electrical shock, risk of fire existed in places where inflammable, volatile anaesthetics were used. The high-voltage generators of this period primarily consisted of induction coils, static generators and high-frequency coils of low electrical power. Gunther wrote in 1919 that all users of these systems received electrical shocks at some time, and although the shocks were painful and could cause burns, the impact on the victim’s health (and attitude) was minimal. The ability of high-voltage to bridge considerable air gaps through electrical discharge increased the risk of receiving shocks. Īt the time of Röntgen’s discovery of X-rays, and for many years thereafter, minimally insulated wires were used for connecting the high-voltage supply to the gas tube that generated X-rays, and all electrical contacts were generally bare. This dark side of the early application of X-rays has received virtually no attention in the literature on the history of radiology and radiotherapy, in contrast to the consequences of poor radiation protection. We found 51 fatal and 62 serious non- fatal electrical accidents, most occurring from 1920 to 1940.Įlectrical accidents with X-ray systems were responsible for a considerable number of injuries and deaths in a period that roughly extended from 1920 to 1940.Inductors, static generators and high- frequency coils were generally low-current systems and safe.After 1920, transformers killed by delivering currents above the ventricular fibrillation threshold. ![]() Between 18 electrical shocks from X- ray systems were common, but their consequences limited.The development of electrically shockproof X- ray systems took about 4 decades ( 1895– 1935).The complete solution of the problem is a success story of engineering realised by contributions from all parties involved. ConclusionsĪlthough largely forgotten, the development of the shockproof X-ray systems we take for granted today lasted about 4 decades and was associated with considerable human suffering. The accidents led to recommendations and regulations to improve safety for operators and patients, and spurred manufacturers to technical developments that culminated in fully electrically shockproof systems by 1935. Most of them occurred between 19 and involved transformers that provided output currents well above the threshold for the induction of ventricular fibrillation. We found 51 fatal and 62 non-fatal but serious electrical accidents. Information on the historical systems was retrieved from the scientific literature and brochures from manufacturers. Methodsĭigitised newspapers, scientific journals, books and reports of legal procedures were searched for electrical accidents involving X-ray systems. To commemorate victims of electrical accidents that occurred in the first decades of radiology and relate these accidents to the evolution of the X-ray apparatus.
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